11:22
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Note: All the notes provided us from gcvs
recomended book text book of veterinary physiology
Composed,
Compiled and Presented by:
MUHAMMAD
SAJJAD HUSSAIN
CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
Physiology is the study of
integrated functions of body and functions of all its
part
(systems,organs,tissues,cells and cell components) including biophysical
and biochemical processes.
Science
dealing with the functioning of living matter and beings.
Functional
processes in an organism OR
Normal
functioning of body
CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM:
The system consisting of
heart and blood vessels is known as CVS.It is
responsible for providing
each and every cell of the body with the nutrients it
required ,while removing
the waste products. Heart is the pump that drives the
cvs.
CARDIUM
:containing
heart
VASCULAR
:blood
vessels
SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE
OF CVS:
In
order to understand the various functions of body we have to classified
it into different
systems,organs,tissues,cells,etc which have their own
function.
In
our body every system,organs is very important for proper body
functioning.
We
are not in a fetus form when CVS starts working i.e pulsation of heart
BLOOD:
Blood is a type of
connective tissue which circulates throughout the body and is
50-60 portion of our body
fluids.
There are two main types of
body fluids
INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS: These are present
within the cell.Out of
total 60% of body fluids
40%(2/3) is intracellularfluid.Some cells may
have 70-85% fluids.
EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS: These are present
outside the cells.Out of
the total 60% body fluids
,20%(1/3) is extracellular fluids.It is further
divided into :
o Interstitial fluid: It is a
fluid around the cells of bathing
fluids of cells in space
between them.Out of total 20% it is
15%
o Blood
plasma:
It is a fluid portion of blood.Out of total 20%
it is 5%.
o Lymph: It is a fluid filtered
from main blood stream due to
pressure of blood and flows
into special lymph vessels
(lacteals)
o Local
fluids:
They are in traces and have following types
Synovial fluid: It is present in different
joints
Cerebrospinal fluid: It is present in brain and
spinal
cord
Serous fluid: It is water fluid
e.g
Peritonial fluid: Fluid in body wall
Pelural fluid: Fluids between
lungs and pelural
membrane .
Pericardial fluid: Fluid between heart
and
pericardium.
Aqueous vitrous: Fluid present in eyes
The exchange of material by
the cells take place with the help of interstitial
fluid e.g oxygen which
enters the cells first dissolved into the fluids then enters
the cell.
BLOOD:
It is a main part of cvs.
It is the part of body fluids that circulates in
the heart,arteries,veins of an
organism.
7-8% of body weight is blood.
It is extracellular type of body fluids and
comprises of two portions
1) Cellular portion or
formed elements of blood:45%
2) Fluid portion containing
plasma,serum:55%
FUNCTION
OF BLOOD:
Blood carries oxygen from lungs to tissues.
It removes co2 from tissues.
It provides ,transport nutrients,made them
available by the digestive tract
to the body tissues.
The waste products from various tissues are
carried into kidneys from
excretion
The clotting ability of blood prevent the excess
loss of blood from
injuries.
Blood has two important properties ,within the
system it will not clot
,when come out of the
system i.e vessels it will clot,if not clot its
dangerous.
Buffers such as bicarbonate in the blood helps
to maintain a constant ph
of tissues and body fluids.
Arterial blood ph is 7.4 and venous blood ph is
7.35.
If arterial blood ph becomes 7.8 it will lead to
death due to alkalosis i.e.
the excitation of nervous
system and if arterial blood ph becomes 6.8 it
will also lead to death due
to acidosis.i.e. due to depression of nervous
system.
It transports hormones from endocrine glands to
other organs of body.
It transports enzymes.
It maintains the osmotic pressure with the help
of plasma proteins.
Helps to maintain the water balance
It protects us from diseases due to leukocytes
(immunity).
Fluid portion is 55% and cellular portion is
45%.It may varies in different
organism according to
age,sex,condition and species.
If dehydration occurs fluid portion decreases.
The fluid portion is called serum if clotting
factor is removed from blood.
If the fluid portion contains the clotting
factor(fibrinogen,calcium),then it
is known as plasma.
The plasma have 92% water and the rest 7-8%
dissolved substances e.g
carbohydrates,proteins,lipids,salts,minerals,electrolytesmetal,hormones,e
nzymes,pigments,gases,traces,various
chemicals,and substances
commonly
glucose,cholesterol,creatine,creatinine,glycerol etc
Plasma contains so many substances.
CELLULAR
PORTION OR FORMED ELEMENTS:
Erythrocytes (RBC”S)
Leukocytes (WBC”S)
Thrombocytes(Platelets)
ERYTHROCYTES
(RBC):
Erythro—Red
Cytes---Cells
These are the cells which
are about 5 million / cubic mm in healthy mature
males.
In females these are 4.7
million / cubic mm.
It varies from individual
to individual ,age,sex,health,species.
These are biconcave discs
in shape.They are about 7.5 micron in
diameter.From margins 1.5
and from centre 1 micron in diameter.These are
specialize in the transport
of oxygen.mature rbc’s are non nucleated in
mammals but with exception
of birds and camels.Immature rbc’s are
nucleated.They have 120
days of life span and are removed from the
body.These cells contain
haemoglobin which is responsible for the transport
of oxygen to cells and
tissues.
If the no.of rbc’s or
amount of haemoglobin with in the cell is less
than normal values with respect
to age,sex,species, the organism will suffer
from ANEMIA.
AN—Without
EMIA—Blood
PENIAS:
LEUKOPENIA:decrease in WBC’S
ERYTHROPENIA:decrease in RBC’S
THROMBOPENIA:decrease in PLATELETS.
CYTOSIS:
ERYTHROCYTOSIS: increase in RBC’S
THROMBOCYTOSIS: increase in PLATELETS
LEUKOCYTOSIS: increase in WBC’S.
When the no. of WBC’S
increase upto 10000-12000/cubic mm the condition is
known as leukocytosis but
when they exceed this value the condition is known
as BLOOD CANCER.
LEUKOCYTES
(WBC’S):
These are white blood cells
and ranges in human beings from 4.5-6 thousands
/cubic mm,having life span
from few hours to years or more life span varies
from depending upon its
type.These are concerened with the defence of body
against various diseases.These
are classified into two categories.
GRANULOCYTES
AGRANULOCYTES
Having granules in their
cytoplasm
e.g
neutrophyls,basophyls,eosinophyls.
They don’t have granules in
their
cytoplasm
GENERAL
PROPERTIES OF WBC’S:
Concerned with the defence
mechanism of the body .Life span varies from few
hours to years or more.They
are white tinched in appearance.
MARGINATION: When they move in capillaries ,they
come on
side/margines.
DIAPEDESIS: They move out or come out from capillaries
pores.normally our blood
proteins cannot come out except in case of ag
,bacteria,infections,then
WBC’S come out because they are phagocytes
They are bigger then
capillaries pores so that it passes the pores by forming the
pseudopodia.They can move
in tissues like amoeba and reach the target tissues
where foreign particles are
available to invade /engulf them.
CHEMOTAXIS: Movement of wbc’s towards
chemotactic substance i.e
bacteria ,foreign particles
or infectious particles.
PHAGOCYTIC: Many of them are phagocytic in
nature ,they engulf the
foreign particles.
In order to study the
properties of the granulocytes we stain them and observed
them and the names are
given on this basis.
DYE:
The dye is of two types
acidic or basic.
When they are stained,they
carry colour ,some carry acidic dye and some carry
basic dye.
RED/PINK---Acidic dye
(Eosine)
PURPLE/BLUE---Basic dye
NEUTROPHYLS:
Cells having neutral affinity for acidic and
basic dye.
They are also known as polymorphs because their
nucleus have more
than one lobes.
These are most common type of leukocytes in
humans.
Humans have 62-70% neutrophyls.
Their %age varies in different species.
They have polylobe nucleus.
They are indifferently stained (pink or blue).
Phagocytic in nature.(to engulf)
Life span ranges from few hours to week.
One neutrophyl can engulf 25-30 bacteria and
then destroy them with
lysosomal enzymes or other
toxic enzymes present inside granules and
then destroy themselves
because of bacterial toxins.
EOSINOPHYLS:
They have affinity for acidic dye.
Their granules are pink or red.
They are 2-3 % of total leukocytes in humans.
Having more than one lobe of nucleus may be 2 or
3.
They are active against parasites,infections and
engulf them.
They are also active against bacterial toxins
and detoxify bacterial
toxins.
BASOPHYLS:
They have affinity for basic dye.
These are very rare type of leukocytes i.e less
than 1 %.
Granules are purple or blue in colour
They release histamine (irritating substance)
and heparine
(anti_coagulant/prevent
blood clotting).
There are many antibodies in our blood and in
case of allergy
(IgE+Basophyls) swell and
rupture and as a result histamine and
heparine releases.
IgE==Immunoglobulin E.
MONOCYTES:
These are the cells which are immature in
circulation.
These cells come out from capillaries pores
towards tissues and
lodge/stay in different
tissues and swell up/increase in size upto 10 folds.
Their size become very
large and so called macrophage.
They are phagocytic and when they are macrophage
they can be seen.
Macrophages are given different names according
to their location in
different tissues e.g
In lungs-----alveolar cells
In liver------van-kuffer cells
In sub-cutaneous tissues-----histeocytes.
LYMPHOCYTES:
More than 30 % of total leukocytes in humans.
Concerned with immunity i.e. protect us against
disease which is
known as immunity.defence
mechanism of body against diseases
which is known as immunity.
IMMUNITY:
There are three types of
immunity.
Innate immunity
Passive immunity
Acquired immunity.
Now,immunity is the
mechanism by which we are protected from diseases.
It is given by ALMIGHTY ALLAH.
It is our negligence that we get disease.
When we become ill it is due to our fault.
We should take care of ourself.
We know everything but sometimes we don’t take
care and don’t bother
about the facts.
We are not ill until or unless we are at fault.
We are protected against disease by immune
system but sometimes
immune systems fails.
We should take care of what we eat,drink and
about our environment.
Our environment is full of
pollution,viruses,bacteria,fungi etc.
INNATE
IMMUNITY:
These are general mechanism by which body is
protected against
diseases.
We are covered with skin and superficial
covering which is made up
of dead keratinized cells
but the proliferation of bacteria ,fungi
required living cells and
thus skin provide protection.
If we cut the skin and don’t take care of it
,don’t apply anti-septic
regularly,then living cells
are expose to bacteria and bacterial growth
becomes conducive.
You are inhaling air which contain bacteria
,fungi etc but we get
disease because nasal
cavity contain hairs which trap the large
particles and is also lined
by mucous gland and always remains
moist,when the foreign
particle pass through the nasal cavity ,they
stick to the mucous,which
contain lysosomal enzymes,which kill the
bacteria.
There are cilia in the nasal cavity ,all these
things are expelled
through the secretion of
cilia ,some passes the nasal cavity and reach
upto the alveoli but they
can’t pass the alveolar membranes.
When we eat ,drink contaminated food ,milk
,water ,etc ,the bacteria
or other infectious
particles are destroyed by the oral cavity
containing lysosomal
enzymes because of high ph and the bacteria
can’t survive.
If they pass the oral cavity and reach the
stomach ,they can’t bare the
ph of the stomach and will
be destroyed.
If they are absorbed and passes through the
stomach into intestine
,spleen they can’t bare
high ph and will be destroyed over there.
If these particles still survives and come into
circulation of blood ,the
blood contain neutrophyls
that invade the foreign particles.
The venous blood of stomach
,spleen ,intestine ,pancreas ,i.e. contaminated is
first goes to liver inspite
of vena cava and liver contains macrophages which
cleared the blood and then
send to the vena cava.this is known as HEPATIC
PORTAL
SYSTEM.
Passive Immunity:
It is prepared type of immunity provided by
prepared anti-bodies or
activated T-cells from
other organism.
When the person’s own immune system is unable to
protect him due to
one or other reason , he is
protected by providing passive immunity.
In other words we can say that when our defense
mechanism failed we
are given certain
anti-bodies or T-cells ,this is known as passive
immunity.
EXAMPLES:
When child is born his immune system is not
active and there are
many chances of getting
many diseases., so after the birth ,he was
given the milk of her
mother and after parturition the milk contain
various anti-bodies that is
source of passive immunity for the
baby.the milk after
parturition is different from other that it is very
delicious ,rich source of
anti-bodies.these anti-bodies will remain in
milk for about a week after
parturition and then their own immune
system become activated.
HOW
DO WE CAME TO KNOW THE PRESENCE OF ANTIBODIES
IN
THE MILK?
Anti-bodies are actually
proteins and when we boil the milk containing
anti-bodies it will
coagulate.
In case of road accident
,we are given the injection of ATS, which is
anti-body against TETANUS(bacteria found in the dung material
of
equines).
The anti-bodies of the
tetanus did not remain in the body for long
time.actually aour body
have anti-body against tetanus but its activation
takes a week but the
disease spread earlier so there is a need of passive
immunity.
ACQUIRED
IMMUNITY:
This is the real immune ststem.
This is due to lymphocytes , which is of two
types:
1)B-lymphocytes
2)T-lymphocytes.
Acquired immunity is of two
types:
Cellular immunity:
It is due T-lymphocytes or
activated Tcells,
directly attack the foreign
particles.
Humoral
immunity:
It is due to
B-lymphocytes(anti-bodies)
B-LYMPHOCYTES:
They are processed at
different sites in the body.These are first identified in
birds and processed in
BURSA FABRICIOUS(a gland in the digestive tract of
birds at the end of
digestive system..
Bacteria when enter the
body specific type of B-lymphocytes are stimulated
depending upon the type of
bacteria or antigens so B-lymphocytes are
stimulated and start
producing like B-lymphocytes .the parent B-lymphocytes is
called as clone , it then
changes to lymphoblast ,which changes to plasmablast,
which then changes to
plasma cells.These plasma cells then produce anti-bodies
which are immunoglobulin
(Ig) proteins in nature and are divided into five
categories:
IgG
IgA
IgE
IgM
IgD
They produce anti-bodies
and these anti-bodies attack and destroy the invading
organism by agglutination,
precipitation, oppronization and complimentary
system etc.
Anti-bodies are produce by
B-lymphocytes and these are specific and activate
the B-cells.
Agglutination:
Cluster or clump formation
e.g if an anti-body attack many antigens results in
ppt formation.
Oppronization:
Some bacteria have
protective coat .due to this protective coat the phagocytic
cells can’t engulf that
bacterium or antigen.Due to oppronization the system
members destroy the coat
and then engulf them.
ACTIVATING COMPLIMENT
SYSTEM:
It is system of 20 system
present in plasma which are normally inactive,many
of them are enzymes or
coenzymes or chemicals or precursors of enzymes.but
once they are stimulated
they are involved in the invading organism.this system
can be activated by the
reaction of anti-body and antigens.
Mechanism of action:
Classical Pathway:
The 20 members are denoted
as
C1,C2,C3,……C9,C3A,C3B,C5A,
and two special B and D.
In this pathway the antigen
and anti-body complex stimulates the C
members and a series of
reactions starts leading to the death of the antigens.
Alternate Pathway:
In this antigens reacts
with B or D members and series of
reaction starts leading to
the lysis of antigen.
T-LYMPHOCYTES:
Some lymphocytes goes to
the thymus gland (located in the thoracic
cavity in fetal life and
disappears as the persons matures).Such
lymphocytes which are
processed in thymus gland are known as Tlymphocytes.
These cells have specific
markers.If any foreign particle attacks the body
cells ,this abnormal cell
is attacked by four T-cells.
These T-cells attack
according to enzyme-substrate mechanism and attack
the abnormal cell by lock
and key model.T-cells have perforating proteins
that will make holes in the
abnormal cells and transfer the litho-toxins
,lysosomes ,peroxisome,
through holes that will destroy the invading
cancerous cells or
transplanted organ.
They can directly attack
the cells and destroy them.Attack the cells(body
cells) which have been
attacked by the bacteria ,viruses or cancerous
cells,transplanted organs
(kidney ,liver ,heart).
Sometimes in some animals
or humans these T-cells are responsible for
Auto-immunity .i.e.
proteins in joint ,heart valves and thyroid glands.
T-Cytotoxic cells or T-Killer cells
T-Helper cells
T-Supressor cells
AUTO-IMMUNITY:
T-lymphocytes have proteins
at their surfaces ,these proteins are known as
markers.T-killer or
T-cytotoxic cells normally don’t attack but sometime
attacks.
After production of
lymphocytes ,which have markers at their surfaces and
antigens and body cells
also have markers at their surfaces and also have
markers at their surfaces
and are specific in function because of presence of
markers.After processing
,some can attack our body because markers are
receptors.Original
lymphocytes are destroyed ,which are not processed are
destroyed within the body.
Some body tissue are very small and have no
contact with lymphocytes
e.g. heart valves ,cornea ,thyroid. They were safe
and processed.At some stage
of life , they are activated.T-cells directly
invade ,destroy them.
Site of formation is
mitochondria in RBC’s.
There are five steps
involved in the formation of haemoglobin.
1) 2-succinyl co.A +Glycine
→ pyrole.
2) 4-pyrole →
protoporphyrine-IX
3) protoporphyrine-IX +
Fe** → heme
4) heme + polypeptide →
globin (α or β)
5) 2-α + 2- β chains →
hemoglobin A
NORMAL
HB’S:
HB-A ,Containing 2-α and 2-
β chains.
HB-A2 , Containing 2-α and
2- Delta chains.
HB-F ,fetal hb Containing
2-α and 2- γchains
ABNORMAL
HB
HB-S
HB-C
Methemoglobin
HB-S: It cant transport
oxygen.Under low concentration of oxygen it
precipitates in the form of
crystals that rupture the membrane or hemolysis
leading to anemia
HB-C:
Its
chains are abnormal.
Methemoglobin:chain is normal ,hb
is normal but in different conditions
,normally Fe** but if it
becomes Fe***,condition is known as methemoglobin.
In animals ,humans,
particularly in ruminants, when hb is normal and iron is in
the form Fe** lose bond is
formed between oxygen and hb,this process is
known as oxygenation.
Whenever there is deficiency of oxygen hb will unload
the oxygen either at tissue
or cellular level.But if Fe**→Fe***,The oxygen will
make the tight bond with hb
results in the oxidation between oxygen and
hb.This will not give up
oxygen at tissue level and the condition is known as
hypoxia.
ANEMIA
AN-without
Emia- blood
Means deficiency of blood
.Major portion of blood is rbc’s.
When either the no. of rbc’s
or the amount of hb within the cell decrease in
respect to age,sex,species
the condition is known as anemia.
TYPES
OF ANEMIA:
Blood loss anemia
Hemolytic anemia
Aplastic anemia
Megaloblastic anemia
BLOOD
LOSS ANEMIA:
As the name indicates
,blood loss due to any reason.May be acute blood loss
anemia or chonic blood loss
anemia.
ACUTE: In this there is a
blood loss in response to any injury or hemorage e.g
accidental cut results in
the blood loss
CHRONIC: In this there is a
continuous blood loss e.g.ulcer,hook worm (blood
sucking parasites),piles.
HEMOLYTIC
ANEMIA:
As the name indicates
hemolysis means breakdown of RBC’C
There are many types
Hemolysis in response to :
Toxins
Snake venoms
Lethotoxins chemicals
Drugs
Injection of large amount of hypotonic solution.
SICKLE
CELL ANEMIA:
In this type of anemia Hb
is abnormal (thalacemia).This type of hemoglobin
precipitates in the form of
crystals at low concentration of oxygen in the body
,the crystals are feather
like that rupture the RBC’s membrane
Immature RBC’s
Increase in the no. of
immature RBC’s in fetal circulation (fetalis)
This condition is due to
incompatible blood group of mother and fetus.Mother
makes antibodies against
fetus ,these crosses the placental barrier and enter the
circulation of fetus and
destroy the RBC’s of fetus.
Now bone marrow of fetus
start RBC’s formation rapidly ,when immature cells
come into circulation ,the
condition is known as erythroblastosis fetalis.
APLASTIC
ANEMIA:
Depression of bone marrow
due to excessive γ-radiations ,attack of viruses
,bacterial toxins
,lethotoxins ,decrease in the drug production of cell.
MEGALOBLASTIC
ANEMIA:
In this type of anemia the
RBC’s are abnormally large and odd in shape due to
deficiency of vitamin
B-12,cobalt,folic acid and deficiency of intrinsic
factor.These minerals
cannot reach bone marrow and RBC’s become large and
odd in shape.When pass
through the capillaries they lodge there and rupture and
animal suffers from anemia.
INTRINSIC
FACTOR:
Protenious substance
released from gastric mucosa that is necessary for the
absorption of vitamin B-12.
If the megaloblastic anemia
is due to the deficiency of intrinsic factors but
not due to vitamin B-12
defeciency in the diet ,anemia is known as
pernicious anemia.
Treatment:
Diet
Blood transfusion from healthy person
BLOOD
CLOTTING / CO-AGULATION:
Blood is in the fluid form
and the change of fluid form of blood into semi-solid
(jelly like) is known as
blood clotting or coagulation.It may be a chemical
conversion due to enzymes
presents in the blood or the soluble form of protein
changes to insoluble form
is known as coagulation of proteins.
In blood there is a
fibrinogen , which is a soluble protein and changes to
insoluble protein i.e.
fibrin , so it coagulates.
thrombin
Fibrinogen → Fibrin
(Soluble) (Insoluble).
We need thrombin to convert
fibrinogen to fibrin.
Thrombin is not in active
form but in the form of prothrombin (inactive) and
once they are stimulated
they become activated.
There are 12-13 or 17 or 30
factors for the conversion of prothrombin into
thrombin.
BLOOD has two important
properties:
Within the system it will not clot,if not clot
it is dangerous.
When comes out of the system it will
clot,dangerous if not clot within 5-
10 minutes.
There are three situations
in which blood will not clot :
Blood vessels are very smooth due to this reason
blood will not clot and if
this condition is provided
outside the body blood will not clot.
When placed at O°
c outside the body it will not clot.
Blood will clot very slowly at 37° c i.e. normal body temperature.
Two systems are involved in
the blood clotting:
Intrinsic system
Extrinsic system
When the blood touches the
rough surface , the 12th
factor
is activated known as
intrinsic system.
When tissue injury occur
tissue thromboplastin FIII is activate.
The role of platelets is
very important , when they touch the rough surface ,
whether outside or inside
the body they stick to it , metamorphosis of platelets
occur.
They secretes:
Epinephrine
Serotonin (5-H-Tryptonine)
PF-3
Prostaglandins
ROLE:
They are involve in the
calcium and cholesterol deposition and in case of any
injury the surface become
rough , the platelets will stick the site and attract the
other platelets leading to
thrombi or thrombus formation.
If due to any reason the
clot detaches it starts floating and become emboli and
the process is known as
embolism. Sometimes this emboli start floating after
detaching and block the
coronary artery of heart leading to heart attack.
Sometimes this emboli even
goes to brain and is very dangerous.
Blood vessels are made up
of circular smooth muscles and the are cut bleeding
starts and the capillary
duct starts contracting ,shrinks and blood flow decreases
, platelets stick to the
site , metamorphosis occur ,chemicals secreted and results
in clump formation called
clotting.
In case of hemophilia,
blood will not clot and continue running in case of any
injury or wound. In case of
humans the hemophilic transferring factor is through
females on the other hand
in canines both sexes are involved in transferring the
disease.
In Swines the pitical
hemorage,resulting in the deficiency of vitamin K will
results in the deficiency
of prothrombin in the liver and as a results thrombin is
not available to convert
the fibrinogen into fibrin.
PH
OF THE BLOOD:
The ph of the blood is
critically maintained at by the body at particular level.
NORMAL
VALUES:
ARTERIAL BLOOD PH =7.4
VENOUS BLOOD PH=7.3
Venous blood is
deoxygenated and thus having more carbon dioxide which is a
representative of an
acid.Venous blood ph is less because it goes to cells where
more metabolism is taking
place and more carbondioxide is released.As a result
H* increases thus ph
decreases.
ALKALOSIS:
The ph is critically
maintained at certain level , the ph increase from the normal
level the person will
suffer from alkalosis.When the ph becomes 7.8 it will
results in the excitation
of nervous system so death occur in the form of titanic
contraction of muscles ,
convulsions and spouse.
ACIDOSIS:
If the ph of blood
decreases the normal, the person will suffer from acidosis.If
the ph becomes 6.8 the
death can occur because of suppression of nervous
system in the form of comma
and unconsciousness.
The disturbance in the
blood ph is maintained by a no. of factors called acidbase
controlling factors of
blood ph.
Buffer System
Respiratory System
Renal System
BUFFER
SYSTEM:
These are either weak
acids/base or their salts, which resists the change in ph in
a fractions of seconds.
Very quickly and immediately resists the change in
ph.Any solution having
buffer in it will resists the change in PH.
There are many buffers in
the human body i.e.carbonates buffers in plasma
,phosphates buffers in the
cells.
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM:
This system tries to
maintain the ph from minutes to hours. Due to metabolism
of body CO2 is produced
which is a representative of an acid and absorbed by
the blood , if its amount
is larger in the blood is converted into carbonic acid
This will excite the
respiratory system and as a result the respiration rate
increases and more CO2 is
expired out.In this way the respiratory system helps
in the maintenance of blood
ph.
In case of exercise more
metabolism takes place and more CO2 is produced,
thus ph decreases and
respiratory centre is stimulated to maintain the ph.
If you are suffering from
alkalosis the respiratory rate slows down to retain
more CO2 in the body while
in case of acidosis the respiratory rate increases to
blow out excess CO2.In this
way they takes minutes to hours to maintain the ph.
RENAL
SYSTEM:
Stronger of the other two
systems but slow in action.They may take hours to
days for the maintenance of
the ph.It is slowest but most stronger system.
In case of acidosis , kidney will remove more
H*,urine will be more
acidic.
In alkalosis , more HCO3 are removed by kidnay
and urine is alkaline.
PLASMA
PROTEINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:
There are many functions of
plasma proteins but some important functions will
be discussed here.
Plasma contain proteins
Albumen
Prothrombin
Globulin
Fibrinogens etc.
ALBUMEN
It is more abundant in plasma.
Maintains osmotic pressure.
Act as a carrier of various substances.
Works as enzyme.
GLOBULIN
Part of hemoglobin to transport oxygen.
γ-hemoglobin act as antibody.
Provide immunity and defence
FIBRINOGEN
Important for clotting and co-agulation
Important for clotting and co-agulation
These plasma proteins act
as buffer ,maintain ph due to presence of amino acids
having acidic and basic
ends.
In case of acidosis they
take up H* ions and in case of alkalosis , they give up
H* ions.
LYMPH
This is a part of extra
cellular fluid which moves (not circulate) through the
system of vessels called
lymphatic system.
Lymph is made up of excess
tissue fluids which is not absorbed by the blood
vessels but is absorbed by
the lymph vessels , which originates blindly in our
body forming a system
called lymphatic system.
The lymph nodes carry
excess fluid and joined with each other in thoracic
cavity to form a major
lymph vessel which drains into vena cava.
Lymph is excess tissue
fluid and is absorbed by lymph capillaries.
Tissue fluid i.e.
extracellular fluid is exchanged with cellular fluids.If lymph is
not removed but absorbed
having excess quantity of toxins and is absorbed by
lymphatics resulting in
edema.
Lymph resembles blood
plasma having lymphocytes but not rest of the cells ,
somewhat contains less
proteins and glucose then blood plasm.Lymph
capillaries around
digestive system is known as lacteals particularly around
intestine , these absorbs
lipids.
MOVEMENT
OF LYMPH
There is no pump in the
lymphatic system like heart in the circulatory system.
Lymph moves only in forward
direction and moves very slowly with the help of
body movements.
Moves very slowly by body movement
Due to contraction and relaxation of skeletal
muscles
Due to pulse in arteries because these lymph
vessels also lies with arteries
and veins.
Lymph vessels contain intermittent valves(which
allows movement in
one directions)
Ultimately drains via major lymph vessel into
vena cava
When it is harmless, cleared then it enters the
blood through vena cava
while when it contain
harmful substances like toxins , bacteria it is not
absorbed into blood
Nodulus structures at various sites are present
they contain macrophages,
lymphocytes and other cells
they are called lymph nodes.
It is also a protective mechanism of body and
these lymph nodes check
the lymph , if there is any
harmful substance, that will be digested ,
absorbed and detoxify and
sometimes leading to the inflammation of the
lymph node, they swell up
and can be felt and cause pain.If lymph is
harmless it enters the
blood via vena cava.
CONDUCTION
SYSTEM OF HEART
The body comprises of
various systems performing different functions and for
proper functioning we
require nourishment and all provided by the circulation
of blood which results
because of pumping of heart which is a special organ
comprising of cardiac
muscles which contract and relax and never have a rest.
You are only in the form of
clot when cardiac muscles starts working and when
they stops death occurs.
Other systems of the body
also perform their function but usually they are
dependent upon others but
heart is intrinsic it doesn’t depends on other.
If heart is provided with
nutrients, oxygen, temperature outside the body it will
keep on working.
Blood from vena cava comes
into right atrium ,right ventricle, via pulmonary
artey to lungs, via
pulmonary vein to left atrium ,left ventricle ,aorta and
supplies the whole body
organs. Heart is a double pumping organ i.e right and
left pump. Pumping is due
to contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscles.
Right Pump→Lungs
Left Pump→To body via
Aorta.
Right atrium has a node
(bead like structure )that emits the electrical impulses
known as Syno-Atrial
Node(S.A Node).It is actually a special collection of cells
, generator or a battery
but technically is known as pacemaker.Impulses are
emitted in a particular
manner / rhythm. There is another node betweem right
atrium and right ventricle
known as Atrio-Venticular Node (A.V Node).Some
impulses came here and from
this AV node a BUNDLE OF HIS originates
,which is divided into
right and left branch and these branches further divided in
to PURKINJE FIBERS , which
give rise to contraction and relaxation of cardiac
muscles as the impulses
reach purkinje fibers.
POLARIZATION
AND DEPOLARIZATION
When electrical impulses
reaches atrium , atrial muscles contracts.In relaxed
condition , atrium relaxed
and blood comes in filled , this is known as
depolarization.
PROPAGATION
OF ELECTRICAL IMPULSES
Muscles and nerve tissues
are excitable and shows response to the stimulus.The
smooth muscles comprises
the internal organs.
The cardiac muscles
comprises the heart and their contraction and relaxation
results in the pumping of
heart.This contraction and relaxation is due to
electrical
impulses(charge).
Charge is due to
distribution of electrolytes in the bio-membranes i.e. Na*,K*,
Ca*,carbonate, bicarbonate
etc.
Membranes of the muscles,
nerves contains electrolytes and may be positively
or negatively charged
depending upon.Normally negativity is higher inside and
positivity is higher
outside.
Due to presence of charges
on membranes , it is polarized.Membranes have
channels and are permeable
in response to the stimuli these charges are
disturbed.
Two Na comes in through
channels but one K goes out ,net charge become
more inside and the
condition is known as depolarized.In response to
depolarization the muscles
size shortens.K mainly not tolerate inside the cell
due to presence of ADP and
the condition is known as repolarization.
Depolarization---------Muscles
shortens
Repolarization---------Muscles
relax
ATRIA
If in polarized state,in
relaxed condition and blood comes via vena cava and
disturbed the charge of
atrial muscle fibers and depolarized due to ADP pump.
VENTRICLE
The A.V node emits impulses
in special mill volts results in the contraction of
ventricle.
S.A node is known as
pacemaker.Due to intrinsic mechanism of heart, it will
contract and relax in a
rhythmic manner but under some conditions, according
to body requirements this
intrinsic mechanism is modified by the Autonomic
Nervous System.
When you are running, doing
exercise the blood pressure and metabolism
increases and the
production of CO2 increases and more oxygen and nutrients is
needed by the body to
maintain the normal functioning which is being provided
by the heart,as a result
the heart rate and B.P increases under the influence of
Autonomic Nervous System.
Heart rate is automatically
controlled by the Autonomic Nervous System which
is further divided into two
divisions
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
These two usually works
opposite to each other e.g if one increases the activity
of an organ the other will
decreases its activity. Sympathetic Nervous System
increases the activity of
CVS and parasympathetic decreases its activity. They
work through the
neurotransmitters and hormones.
Sympathetic Nervous System--------epinephrine,
dopamine, adrenaline
Parasympathetic Nervous System-----acetylcholine
If there is release of
epinephrine Sympathetic activity increases and vice versa.
HOW
ANS MODIFY THE ACTION OF HEART
Heart works in a particular
manner, rhythm, speed, force etc so ANS can
modify it accordingly.
Sympathetic Nervous System
is also known as thoraco-lumbar (nerves of
thoracic and lumbar region
are responsible for the activity)
Parasympathetic Nervous
System is also known as cranio-sacral (nerves of
cranial and sacral region
controls the activity)
33 Nerves originates from
spinal cord. There are 12 pairs of spinal nerves,the
10th pair is known as
vagous nerve which goes inside into the internal organs i.e.
liver, heart, pancreas etc.
Vagous nerve is acted by
acetylcholine so Parasympathetic Nervous System is
involved. Heart is supplied
by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system.
SUPPLY
OF PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Vagous nerve’s fibers comes
to S.A node and A.V node.When we are at rest
parasympathetic nervous
system releases acetylcholine and heart slows down
and sometimes very much
acetylcholine is released and heart stops, force of
contraction decreases and
B.P decreases
SUPPLY
OF SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Supplied by thoraco-lumbar
region.
GANGLIA : Collection of
nerves outside brain and spinal cord.
In thoracic region the
ganglia is known as Satellite ganglia, nerve fibers come to
heart through ventricle to
A.V node or bundle of HIS.
Epinephrine and adrenaline
are released and resulting in the increase of heart
rate, force of contraction increases
and B.P also increases.
BLOOD
PRESSURE
Pressure of blood exerted
on the walls of the vessels per unit area.
FACTORS FOR B.P
Depends directly on the volume of the blood
Force of contraction of ventricles
Rate of contraction of heart
Depends indirectly on the diameter of blood
vessel (lumen)
Elasticity of blood vessels
Peripheral resistance----indirectly
Indirectly on the surface area and the length of
blood vessels
Neurotransmitters (Acetylcholine slows the B.P
while epinephrine boost
it up)
Directly on the viscosity of blood
Role of various chemicals e.g. cholesterol
deposits increases and the
lumen constricts and
elasticity decreases so B.P increases
Angiotensinogen is present in the blood in
inactive form but when
converted to angiotensin-I
or angiotensin-II, it leads to vasoconstriction
and B.P increases.
MEASURES
OF BLOOD PRESSURE
Normally measured in mm of
hg and is of two types
SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
Contraction of any chamber
of heart
either atria or ventricle.
The pressure of blood at
the time of
contraction of ventricles.
B.P is maximum in vessels.
Relaxation of any chamber
of heart
either atria or ventricle.
It is pressure of blood
when ventricle
relaxes.
B.P is minimum in the
vessels.
Normal value in adult human
is 120/80 mm of hg.
These pressures varies with
age, sex and the activity of body in different
physiological and
pathological conditions.
Systolic increases with age
due to increase in elasticity of blood vessels.
After moderate exercise
systolic B.P pressure increases and diasystolic remains
almost same.
When B.P decreases the
cells may not get proper oxygen, nutrients.
Removal of waste and CO2 is
effected.
When B.P increase ,
headache starts and you feel giddy any capillary may
rupture leading to brain
hemorrhage.Its also effects the liver, kidney, eyes etc
Heart pumps 5-6 liter of
blood a minute but may pump upto 34 liters in case of
exercise.
EPISTASIS:
It
is actually the deficiency of prothrombin and vit. K.
PULSE
RATE: It
is the difference of systolic and diastolic B.P
HEART
SOUND
If you listen the heart
sound by putting your ear on the chest or by stethoscope,
you will hear two sounds
LUB-----DUB.
Two distinct sounds they
are normally audible and can be recorded by
monogram.
First sound LUB is produced
by the closure (shut down) of atrio-ventricular
valves. The
atrio-ventricular valve of right side is tri-cuspid and that of left side
is bi-cuspid also known as
mitral valve. Opens when blood moves from atrium
to ventricle and as a
result LUB is produced and closed when blood passed into
ventricle. Valves open and
close by the string like structure called chordae
tendonae (parashot string
like structure) due to contraction of muscles.
Second sound DUB is
produced by
Vibration of vessel valves
Blood columns between ventricle and atrium
Closure of semi-lunar valves
These valves prevents the
backward flow of blood.
When the ventricle
contracts valves open and when ventricles relax valves
closed and second sound DUB
is produced.
DISORDERS
OF VALVES
When the atrio-ventricle
failed to close completely an abnormal sound is
produced called MUR-MUR.
Heart valves don’t closes
correctly when atria relax, may be because of extra
load on heart or the
disturbed efficiency of heart.
Normally atria receives the
blood and transfer it to the ventricle and then to the
respective vessels and the
valves close to prevent the backward flow of the
blood, but when the valves
are not completely closed as a result some blood
flows backward into atrium,
results in the extra load on the heart
When the atrio-ventricle
valves failed to open completely due to presence of
scar tissue the condition
is known as stenosis.There
is also extra load on heart,
much force of contraction
is required to pump the blood as a result less amount
of blood goes into
ventricle so atria retains more blood due to incomplete
opening of valves.Blood
volume and capacity in the atrium increases.
PULSE
It is found in arteries not
in veins.It is the wave of blood movement in arteries
and is found in each and every
point of artery.
There are three types of
vessels
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
These three always having
blood but the walls of arteries are more elastic to
accommodate and maintain
the B.P. Arteries having some blood maintains the
B.P and receives the 70ml
of blood from pulmonary artery, it dilates and the
extra blood moves forward,
now the next part dilates and the previous constricts
and this process of
constriction and dilatation as PULSE which is 72 / minute in
a normal human being.Pulse
is not found in the capillaries and veins.It varies
with age, sex, species,
activity of body.
BLOOD
GROUPS
You have observed the
unknown blood groups practically.Why is there a need
to identify the blood
groups and why it differs.
In ancient times in case of
battles and wars, swords and knifes are used and lots
of animals and persons
become wounded and most of the people died because
of bleeding. Medical person
thought that blood is same for every individual so
they use blood transfusion
to save the lives and succeeded somehow but some
also lead to death
spontaneously because of agglutination.
Research started on RBC’s
and others cells and special substances identified
called antigens which cause
the agglutination.They found that there may be two
antigens present on RBC’s
i.e A and B. Due to presence or absence of these
antigens four blood groups
have been identified
A
B
O
AB
This was the first
breakthrough in the transfusion but still there were reactions
in some cases and the
research begins again and the Rh antigen is discovered
which is found in 85%
people and also in the rhesus monkeys.The individuals
having this antigen is
known as positive and those don’t having are called
negative, but still
reactions in some cases and further research give birth to the
sub-groups and these
antigens named as M,N,K etc but important is ABO (A, B,
O) system and Rh (D)
system.
If the person having Ag- A
on RBC the blood group will be A and in his plasma
Ab –A is absent and Ab –B
is present.
Person having no antigen
the blood group will be O and the antibody will be AB
Blood Group Antigen
Antinbody
A a b
B b a
AB a,b ----
O ---- a,b
If A along with D is present -----A*
If B along with D is present------B*
If B not but D is present ---------B
If A not but D is present ---------A
If AB along with D -------------AB*
If AB not but D -----------------AB
If not AB but D------------------O*
If no antigen is present -----------O
CROSS-MATCHING
Major cross matching
Minor cross matching
MAJOR
CROSS MATCHING
Beside main group if there
is any system we take RBC of donor and plasma
/serum of patient and react
and incubate and observe for any reaction. If there is
no agglutination than we
can transfuse blood but if there is agglutination we
cant transfuse blood.
REASON
Both having A but there is
soon antigen in the donor and antibody in patient
other than A which is
dangerous.
MINOR
CROSS MATCHING
Plasma from the donor and
the cells of the patient are incubated and observed
for the reactions.
We should avoid transfusion
in case of agglutination but if no alternate is
present we can take risk
but ideally we should not transfuse.
350 ml of blood is present
in one transfusion and it contain 45% of cells(rbc)
Electro-Cardiograph
and Shock
Electrocardiography
Electrocardiography
----graph
Electrocardiogram
Process of recording of
impulses on the paper is known as
electrocardiogram
Normal
ECG
It is test for the
diagnosis of heart problem.
SA nodes emits and electric
impulses and spread on atria and depolarizes
the atria and atria
contracts and blood moves into ventricle and these impulse
reaches AV node, bundle of
HIS,purkinje fibre and ventricle contracts and
blood passes the ventricle
into respective veins and artries.
All these happen in a
rhythmic manner, if there is any disturbance, or
interruption ECG helps in
diagnosis.
P-Waves
Indicates
1. Spread of electric
impulses on the both atria
2. Indicates the
depolarization of atria
3. Contraction of atria.
QRS
Complex
1. The spread of impulses
on the ventricles or
2. Despoliation of
ventricle
3. Contraction of ventricle
T-Waves
indicates
- The relaxation of
ventricle
- Repolarization of
ventricle
Now, any change in these
normal p, q, r, s, t, waves, indicates abnormality in
heart problem.
Shock
Activity
of heart and blood
Sock means, when the
effective volume of blood is unable to fulfill the
requirement of body the
condition is known as shock.
You need 5 litre of blood
in CVS, but in case of injury 4 lit left so, it will
not work properly, so body
is affected.
This may be reversible
shock body can compensate by vasoconstriction,
in case of less acute
injury.
BP increases and more blood
came into CVS from body.
If u can compensate by
blood transfusion, fluid transfusion called
compensatory shock/therapy.
If more than 2 litre is
lost, condition is known as irreversible shock that
will led to death. Inspite
of blood/fluid therapy.
- Tachycardia
- Bradicardia
- Stroke volume
- Minute volem
- Cardiac output
- Cardiac Reserve
Tachycardia
When then heart rate
increases than normal upto 100 or more than 100
beats/min in adult person.
Bradicardia
60 or below 60 beats/ min.
Heart rate decreases
Causes
of Tachycardia
- Psychic fears
- Exercise
- Fevers
- Drugs
- Stress
- Muscular contraction etc.
Abnormal slowness of heart
rate.
- Myocardial infarction
- Infectious condition
- Block in conduction of
electric impulses
Stroke
Volume
The volume of blood pumped
by each ventricle in one systole. It is about
70 ml in resting condition.
Output of each ventricle per minute is known minute
volume.
Cardiac
Output
The quantity of blood
ejected by one side of heart in one minute X2 is
known as cardiac output.
Cardiac
Reserve
Normal heart ejects 5-6
litre of blood/min per ventricle at rest. During
exercise the cardiac output
can be 30-35 litre/min. The difference is known as
cardiac reserve.
WORDS
BY AUTHOR
These notes have been
written keeping in the view the need of hour. These are
being prepared under highly
prudence manner .But Omissions and Errors are
expected and obviously
accepted.
Posted in: 1st semester
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